COUNTRY STATUS REPORT #1: FRANCE
 

HISTORY

The French nuclear program started in the 1940's in order to create a nuclear weapons capability. As in the US program, the first French reactors were built for plutonium production. Shortly after World War II, in October 1945, the French president de Gaulle installed the Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique (CEA). The main task was to do research and to develop nuclear technology. During a general meeting of the United Nations (UN) in 1946, the French representative declared that France didn't have any ambition to become a Nuclear Weapon State and that the research was exclusively meant for peaceful application of nuclear energy! [1]

The nuclear industry developed significantly during the 1950s when the CEA, in association with Electricité de France (EdF) laid down plans for domestic, commercial, nuclear power stations, using natural uranium gas-graphite cooled reactors (GCR). This led to the construction of three demonstration GCRs between 1955 and 1960 with a 40 MWe capacity at Marcoule. [2]  During the 1960s, six gas-graphite reactors were built in a joint CEA/EdF effort.
In 1967 the French engineering firms even obtained an order from Spain, for the construction of Vandellos-1 (which was shut down in 1989, due to severe fires).

The operation of the French gas-graphite reactors was not an economic success. As a result, in 1970, the French adopted the U.S.-light water technology. The French standardized their designs to improve the efficiency of construction and operation. But this also ment that design failures appeared in every trench.

In 1994, EdF announced that it will not order any new nuclear power plants before the end of the century. Electricity demand has not grown to fit the still oversized generating system and France wil not expand it's electricity exports beyond the 70 billion kilowatts that will be reached around the turn of the century. [3]
 

NUCLEAR WEAPONS TESTING

Algeria
The first French nuclear weapons tests took place in February 1960 in the Algerian Sahara-desert. Four atmospheric tests were conducted without any regard as to the effects for the local population of the Oasis. It was only after protests from neighbouring African states that France conducted subsurface tests. When Algeria gained independence in 1962, France was still permitted to perform tests till 1966.
Very typical for the French authorities is the fact that until now no document has been re-vealed about the tests and their contaminating consequences. The Algerian government is very reluctant to investigate the health damages done by the bombtests, because of its financial dependence to France.

Pacific
After 1966, the tests were moved to the Pacific islands of Moruroa and Fangataufa.
All over the region, including Tahiti, premature births and birth defects are widespread. The number of lethal cancer cases increased at a rate of 50% after 1974. Each year about 250 radiation victims are flown to France for medical treatment, with the French Secret Service trying to conceal all the medical records.
On July 10, 1985, the Greenpeace ship Rainbow Warrior, which was protesting against the French nuclear tests, was sunk in the harbour of Auckland, New Zealand, by the French secret service. One Greenpeace member was killed. This attack didn't improve the already cold relationship between New Zealand and France. [4]

Moratorium
In 1992, France announced a moratorium on new tests as long as the U.S. and Russia will abstain as well. Most of the politicians and military authorities are however in favour of a continuation of the nuclear tests. [5]  But an opinion-poll in March 1994 showed that three-quarter of the French population is against resumption of nuclear tests as long as the other nuclear powers also follow the moratorium. [6]
 

CURRENT SITUATION

Uranium mining
About ten years ago when the oil prices were still high, more then 200 uranium mines were operating, either in the open air or underground. This situation has drastically changed. Due to the recent discoveries of gigantic uranium deposits in Canada and Australia as well as the stopping of many Western nuclear programmes, the French uranium mining is in a very bad shape. Since 1974, yellowcake has decreased 80% in value. The French mines have a very low percentage of uranium (scarcely 2-4 kg/tons, a tenth of the Canadian or Australian mines output) and therefore are not paying. [7]

In the last ten years, one mine after the other is closing down. The exploiter is the Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique (CEA), a state consortium which leads all the French civil and military activities in the nuclear field. [8]
In the beginning of 1993 there were only nine operating mines left. In 1988, there were still 34 active mines which produced 3,394 tonnes of uranium. In 1994, the production is about 1,000 tonnes. The last mine should be closed down before 2,000. [9]

A study covering virtually all French uranium miners since 1946 has established a definite link between long-term cumulative exposure to radon and death from lung and laryngeal cancer. Authors of the study are the government's own Cogéma and the Institute of Protection and Nuclear Safety (IPSN). [10]  Cogéma is also France's largest uranium producer.

Superphenix
Construction of the 1,200MWe sodium cooled Superphenix fast breeder reactor at Creys-Malville started in 1976, and was finished in 1985. It is a joint project of Electricité de France (EDF), the Italian utility ENEL, and the German fast reactor company SBK. These partners set up the company NERSA (Société Anonyme Centrale Nucléaire Européenne à Neutrons Rapides), which owns the reactor. [11]

As a fast-breeder reactor (FBR), it should produce more fuel than it should consume, in order to provide protection against the shortage of nuclear fuel. Only a small number of FBR exist worldwide because of technological and safety problems. Because of a wide variety of incidents Superphenix never seems to have functioned to its full capacity for more than 174 days. [12]

In July 1992, the French government had decided not to restart Superphenix because of a very negative report on the reactor's safety by the French authority on nuclear safety. At that point the plant had already been closed for two years because of a leak and problems in the cooling system. According to the law it needed to apply for a new permit. [13]  In December 1992, Minister of Research and Space, Hubert Curien stated that fast reactors could be used as incinerators in order to reduce the stock of plutonium. [14]  However, as predicted, this method was not a succes. After this was started on 4 August 1994 a series of incidents occured in the first months. [15]

The restart of the reactor costs between US$112-130 million a year. The foreign investors have serious doubts about continuating their participation. The SBK, which has a share of 16%, envisages to decrease the financial participation, even to retire completely. The Italian company ENEL (owner of 33% of the shares) is rethinking its participation too. [16]
 

NUCLEAR WASTE

Reprocessing
With its large number of nuclear reactors France produces an enormous amount of radioactive waste. Irradiated fuel from the French reactors is cooled in pools at the reactor sites and then shipped either to Marcoule (Rhône-delta) or La Hague, for extraction of the plutonium and uranium. At the reprocessing plants fuel may be again stored in water before undergoing reprocessing. Marcoule reprocesses mainly natural uranium, gas graphite fuel and breeder fuel; La Hague reprocesses fuel from Light Water Reactors.

The reprocessing process produces large quantities of wastes, including the highly radioactive liquids containing mainly fission products from which the plutonium and uranium have been separated. France vitrifies (melts in glass) these high level wastes at La Hague and Marcoule. Eventually, the resulting glass logs will be placed deep underground. The liquid waste, while awaiting vitrification, is stored at the reprocessing plants.

Long-lived, moderate or weak radioactive waste is generally retained at the site at which it was produced. Authorities anticipate that it will eventually be stored deep underground. The short-lived, weak and moderate radioactive waste consisting mostly of beta and gamma emitters is permanently stored at two facilities, La Manche and Soulaines-Dhuys. The La Manche site was closed in 1994. [17]

High level waste
In 1987 the National Agency for the Management of Radioactive Waste (ANDRA) announced the pre-selection of four possible sites for a preliminary deep underground laboratory. Opposition to these sites was so fierce that in 1990 Prime Minister Michel Rocard was forced to proclaim a moratorium on the high-level nuclear waste program. Finally, in late 1991, the Assemblée Nationale promulgated a new law, establishing a 'Waste Mediator', Christian Bataille, to negotiate with local communities for the right to undertake research on nuclear waste dumping. The law also established a fifteen-year 'cooling-off' period before a final site can be chosen. [18]

Low level waste
The environmental problems related to mining activities, the milling of the ore and especially the uranium mill tailings deposits went unnoticed until summer 1991. The change was initiated by the independent radiation monitoring group Commission de Recherche d'Information Indépendante sur la Radioactivite (CRII-Rad). CRII-Rad discovered in a statement by Cogéma that several uranium mill tailings in the Limoges area (Brugeaud, Bessines, Margnac) contain more than 1,000 Curie (37 TeraBecquerels, i.e. 37 trillion Bq) of radium-226 and thus should have been licensed as basic nuclear installations. That implies the elaboration of an environmental assessment report and public participation during the licensing procedure. Moreover, a July 1991 report by a government commission (Commission Desgraupes) on nuclear wastes in France revealed that several other uranium mill deposits go beyond the 1,000 Curie limit. This means that these are operated illegally. [19]

As of January 1991, France produced 63,000 tons of uranium and 45,000,000 tons of tailings. The tailings are stored at 15 sites, some of them are underground mines or open pit mines where the tailings have been used as backfill. At a number of the sites the tailings are placed behind the dams and covered only with water. [20]

Military waste
No institution outside the Atomic Energy Commission (CEA) and the Ministry of Defence has control over waste disposal, decontamination, and dismantlement in military nuclear sites. The Division of Nuclear Safety within the Ministry of Home Affairs is in charge of matters relating to nuclear safety at civilian sites and at ANDRA's storage sites. Many regulations, like covering instruction and operation of civilian sites (including public authorizations required before releasing radio-elements) do not cover military sites.
The major producers of military radwaste in France are the CEA and one of its subsidiaries, Cogema, CEA's Divison of Military Applications (DAM)runs six military research and production centers. Regular operations at the production sites produce environmental contamination. Beyond that, there are accidents that spread radio-elements into the environment directly or through subsequent decontamination operations. Although many accidents have occured, the public has been told only a few of them. Mostly they never hear about their impact. Several accidents and illegal handlings such as drainings in air, water and soil) are described in the book 'Les déchets nucléaires militaires Français' from Mary Davis and Bruno Barillot, director of the Documentation and Research Center on Peace and Conflicts in Lyon. [21]
 

FRENCH ANTI-NUCLEAR MOVEMENT

The seventies
In the 70s, the France's nuclear energy program was developing at rapid speed and the anti-nuclear movement followed. But it was already in 1969 that the population in the Alsace protested against the first pressurized water reactor at Fessenheim. And in 1972 the demonstrations against the nuclear power plants of Fessenheim and Bugey, showed a growing anti-nuclear opposition.

When in 1974, the Messmer government decided to apply the policy 'Tout Electrique/Tout Nucléaire', the concerned population and many scientists reacted immediately. 4,000 scientists appealed to the public opinion about the decision of Messmer. In 1975 they established the GSIEN, the Groupement des Scientifiques pour l'Information sur l'Energie Nucléaire. Their main goal is to inform the population about the risks of nuclear energy. [22]

In Brittany, the population, together with the local politicians showed very strong opposition against the plans for the Plogoff nuclear power plant. In 1975, the plant in Brennilis was severely damaged because of two bomb explosions. [23]  In 1976, the local protests increased everywhere. During this same year the municipal elections were very successful for the ecologists throughout the whole country. This growing anti-nuclear movement was hoping for the victory of the left political parties in the national elections in 1978.

But before that, on July 31, 1977 the massive demonstration (60,000 people from all over Europe) against the breeder reactor in Creys-Malville ended dramatically with police violences leaving wounded people and a dying activist on the 'battlefield'. [24]

Many anti-nuclear activists, which were heirs of the 1968 May movement, thought of the antinuclear struggle as a defensive struggle against the State and the (nuclear) industrial society. Others thought that the Movement should become more institutionalized and should develop their contacts with the Unions and leftist political parties. [25]  This political adventure which started so hopeful, crashed completely during the 1978 elections.

International co-operation
The international movement started in 1973 on the Rhine. Winegrowers, Rhine-fishermen and students fought alongside Alsace protesters against the planned nuclear power plant in Wyhl on the German bank and the lead sulphate works in Marckolsheim on the French bank.

Many activists continued their fight using many different action models. (the following are some examples)
* In October 1978, several activists groups refused to pay the atomic part of their electricity bill to protest against Superphenix. [26]
* In May 1979, women in the city of Toulouse planned a 'birthstrike'. [27]
* In August 1979, about 30 groups from all over France established a uranium-network, called Réseau Uranium, in order to improve the efficiency of working together and to exchange information. [28]
* In 1980 and 1981, many ecological manifestations and antinuclear protest demonstrations took place all over the country. [29]
* In 1981, a train with nuclear waste from Germany heading to La Hague was blocked by the syndicate CFDT.
* In May 1984, a European session against fast breeding was organised by the Campagne Pour l'Arrêt de Malville followed by a peace camp.
* In September 1985, a high tension pole, in the Lot-et-Garonne, was demolished. [30]
* In 1986, the environmental action group Robin des Bois, occupied a cooling tower on the site of the nuclear power plant of Cattenom.
* In 1990, there was an international fast against nuclear testing. In France about 200 people fasted. [31]

The political and social circumstances in France never were very open to ventilate an anti-nuclear opinion. But during the 70s and 80s many groups appeared and some of them started to try to work together like f.i. the anti-nuclear co-operation of 'The Europeans against Superphenix'. This new organization started in 1993, armed with 25,000 signatures opposing the reopening of the plant.

According to a survey done in 1992, for the French Institute of Nuclear Safety and Protection (IPSN), 63.9% of the public opinion is against nuclear power plants (right after the Chernobyl disaster, this was 54%). [32]
 

THE FRENCH NUCLEAR INDUSTRY

Electricité de France
EdF, founded in 1946, is a state owned supplier of electricity and owns the nuclear power stations. The company finds itself in a financial crisis. Even with a profit of FF 2,1 billion [33]  for 1993 it is still in debts of more than FF 200 billion. [34]  Reasons for this are: 1- an overproduction of nuclear power; 2- the big investments in nuclear power plants; 3- a low electricity price and; 4- extra investments in safety after problems occured. EdF decided to build no new reactors till 2000. [35]

For some years EdF has moved to the international market. Especially in eastern Europe EdF is involved in nuclear projects. It has a majority share in the joint venture company EMO with the Slovak electricity company SEP. EMO will be the owner of the Mochovce nuclear reactors 1 and 2, which are under construction and should be completed with western financial help. The European Bank for Reconstruction and Development EBRD will soon take a decision to finance the project. [36]

EdF has also a share in the former East-German electricity industry. [37]  It contributed 10 million Francs for safety measures in the Bulgarian reactor Kozloduy [38]  and has a 14 million dollar contract with the Russian ministry of Atomic Energy to supply services and computer aid for future reactors. [39]  The Russian Kola and the Ukraine Rowno reactor also get safety measures constructed by EdF. [40]  In 1990, EdF started negotiations with Hungary to build two reactors in exchange for electricity from these reactors. [41]

Framatome
Framatome, the reactor builder which was founded in 1958, is confronted with a collapsed nuclear market. Till 2,000 no new reactors will be built in France. In the international market there are no new orders as well. Framatome just completed the Chinese Daya Bay reactors. It has also exported to South Korea and South Africa.

In 1993 Framatome have gained profit of FF 863 million. []42]  The discussions about privatising the company ended in the decision to keep the major share under state supervision because it would be an inseparable part of the French national nuclear industry. Otherwise the electronic company Alcatel-Alsthom would have obtained a 59% majority share. [43]

In order to escape from a financial disaster Framatome set aside its nationalist position to form, with the German Siemens company, the French-German Nuclear Power International (NPI). NPI is supposed to develop a new European Power Reactor EPR, to improve safety. [44]

Cogéma
Founded in 1976, is a state owned Compagnie Générale des Matières Nucléaires, Cogéma. It is the world's biggest supplier of uranium, and the only company which offers every single stage of the nuclear process. Mining is one of its major activities, Cogéma supplies almost half of the total number of worldwide nuclear power plants with uranium. [45]  It has uranium mines all around the planet; for example in Canada, United States, Niger, Senegal, Gabon, Australia and also in France. Cogéma offers also the reprocessing of nuclear fuel in its reprocessing plant La Hague. Utilities all over the world let their nuclear fuel be reprocessed at La Hague.

Cogéma operates a reprocessing facility in Marcoule where plutonium is produced for the French nuclear weapons programme. It also operates the enrichment plant in Pierrelatte for the production of highly enriched uranium for research reactor fuel and nuclear weapons. In 1993 it reached benefits of FF 937 million. [46]

Eurodif
The uranium enrichment plant in Tricastin is the world largest enrichment plant owned by the 1973 founded Eurodif. It began production in 1979 and now supplies one third of the world total enriched nuclear fuel. [47]  Eurodif, in which Cogéma has a majority share of 51.5%, founded in 1974 the Sofidif together with Iran. Sofidif has a share of 25% in Eurodif. Iran had plans for building a nuclear power plant and with the share of 40% of Sofidif in Eurodif it was obliged to supply the plant with enriched fuel.

In 1979, after the Islamic revolution, Iran cancelled plans for reactors and demanded payback of the invested loan with interest. The conflict between the two countries lasted till december 1991 when an agreement was reached. France agreed to pay FF 5.2 billion back to Iran, while Iran would be excluded from uranium supply. [48]